Chapter 01 Phonology
01 Phonetics and Phonology ···· 18
1.1. Phonetics ···· 19
1.2. Phonology ·· 19
1.3. Subfields of Phonetics ··· 20
02 Consonants and Vowels ······· 22
2.1. Speech Production 23
2.2. Speech Organs · 24
2.3. Classification of Speech Sounds 26
2.4. Classification of Consonants ······· 28
2.5. Classification of Vowels 44
03 Phonemes and Allophones ······· 55
3.1. Phonemes and Allophones ··· 56
3.2. Types of Distribution ······ 59
3.3. Minimal Pairs and Free Variation ······· 61
3.4. Relation between Phonemes and Allophones ······· 63
04 Distinctive Features · 65
4.1. Features of Consonants ······· 66
4.2. Features of Vowels · 72
4.3. Redundant Features ······· 74
05 Syllables ·· 75
5.1. Syllable Structure of English ······· 76
5.2. Syllable Types ··· 78
5.3. Sonority ······ 82
5.4. Phonotactics ····· 86
5.5. Non-words Gaps ······ 97
06 Stress ······· 98
6.1. Stress Properties and Rules ·· 99
6.2. Rhythm and Sentence Stress ····· 111
6.3. Foot and Sentence Stress ···· 113
07 Intonation ······· 120
7.1. Functions of Intonation · 121
7.2. Types of Intonation 122
7.3. Tone Unit & Tonic Syllable ···· 125
08 Phonological Processes ······ 126
8.1. Assimilation ······· 128
8.2. Dissimilation ······ 137
8.3. Deletion ······· 138
8.4. Insertion ····· 142
8.5. Neutralization ··· 146
8.6. Speech Errors ··· 149
8.7. Linking · 154
09 Phonological Rules ·· 155
9.1. Rules for the Allophones of Consonants 158
9.2. Rules for the Allophones of Vowels · 176
Chapter 02 Morphology
01 Words 185
1.1. Aspects of Words ···· 186
1.2. Lexemes and Word Forms ··· 187
02 Morphemes ··· 188
2.1. Morphemes ······· 189
2.3. Affixes and Grammatical Classes ······ 200
2.4. Suffixes and Stress Placement ·· 205
2.5. ClassⅠAffixes and Class Ⅱ Affixes ·· 209
2.6. Negative Prefix In- and Un- · 211
03 Structure of Words ·· 213
3.1. Internal Structure of Words 214
3.2. Hierarchical Structure and Ambiguity ····· 216
04 Morphophonemic Rules ······· 217
05 Derivational Constraints ······ 222
5.1. Syntactic Constraint ······ 223
5.2. Morphological Constraint ····· 224
5.3. Phonological Constraint 225
5.4. Semantic Constraint ······ 227
06 Word Formation Processes 228
6.1. Derivation (Affixation) → derived words; derivertives ······· 229
6.2. Compounding (Composition) → compounds 230
6.3. Blending → blends; portmanteau words 231
6.4. Conversion (Functional Shift; Zero Derivation) ···· 232
6.5. Initialism ····· 233
6.6. Clipping (Shortening; Truncation) ····· 234
6.7. Back-formation (Back-derivation) ····· 235
6.8. Borrowing → loan words ······ 236
6.9. Reduplication ···· 237
6.10. Eponyms (Words from Proper Names) · 238
6.11. Onomatopoeia (Echoism) ·· 239
6.12. Word Coinage (Invention; Root-creation; Neologism) ···· 240
Chapter 03 Semantics
01 Lexical Semantics ···· 245
1.1. Meanings of Words 246
1.2. Lexical Field Theory 249
1.3. Semantic Network Theory ··· 250
1.4. Componential Analysis (Lexical Decomposition) ·· 251
1.5. Meanings between Words ··· 253
02 Sentential Semantics ····· 265
2.1. Meanings of Sentences · 266
2.2. Meanings between Sentences ··· 268
03 Ambiguity ······· 277
3.1. Lexical Ambiguity ···· 278
3.2. Syntactic Ambiguity ······· 279
3.3. Phonological Ambiguity 281
3.4. Referential Ambiguity ···· 282
Chapter 04 Pragmatics
01 Context ····· 289
1.1. Verbal Context · 290
1.2. Social Context ·· 291
02 Deixis · 294
2.1. Definition of Deixis ·· 295
2.2. Types of Deixis · 296
2.3. Deictic Center ··· 300
03 Cooperation and Implicature ···· 301
3.1. Cooperative Principle and Maxims of Conversation ··· 302
3.2. Implicature · 305
3.3. Flouting Maxims ······ 308
3.4. Hedging Maxims ······ 310
04 Speech Act Theory ·· 311
4.1. Types of Speech Acts ···· 312
4.2. Classification of Locutionary Acts ····· 319
4.3. Classification of Illocutionary Acts ···· 321
4.4. Direct and Indirect Illocutionary Act · 323
4.5. Felicity Condition ····· 327
Chapter 05 Discourse
01 Discourse Factors ···· 330
1.1. Types of Information ····· 330
1.2. Definiteness & Speciality ······ 331
02 Discourse Competence: Cohesion & Coherence ······· 333
2.1. Communicative Competence ······ 333
2.2. Cohesion & Cohesion Devices ····· 334
2.3. Coherence ·· 337
03 Discourse Markers ··· 338
3.1. Function of Discourse Markers ·· 338
3.2. Types of Discourse Markers 338
04 Conversation Analysis; CA · 339
4.1. Structure of conversation ···· 339
4.2. Turn-taking Negotiation ······· 340
4.3. Turn-taking Violations ··· 341
4.4. Maintenance & Repair ··· 342
Chapter 06 History of English
01 The Origins and Development of English 346
1.1. Old English : 450-1100 AD (→ Germanic) ······ 347
1.2. Middle English : 1100-1500 (→ Germanic + Romance) ···· 348
1.3. Modern English : 1500-Present · 349
02 Earlier Languages than English ······ 351
2.1. Indo-European Languages ··· 351
2.2. Germanic Language ······· 352
03 Phonological Changes ·· 353
3.1. Grimm’s law : Indo-European ―(change)→ Germanic 353
3.2. Verner’s Law : Indo-European ―(change)→ Germanic ······ 354
3.3. Great Vowel Shift ···· 355
04 Diachronic Language Changes ······· 357
4.1. Syntactic Change ···· 357
4.2. Sound Change ·· 357
4.3. Morphological Change ··· 359
4.4. Lexical Change · 359
4.5. Semantic Change ···· 360
