〈Chapter 01 Phonology〉
*01 Consonants ·· 26
1. The Vocal Tract 27
2. Place of Articulation ··· 28
⑴ Bilabial · 28
⑵ Labiodental ·· 29
⑶ Interdental 29
⑷ Alveolar 29
⑸ Palatal (including Palato-alveolar) 30
⑹ Velar ·· 30
⑺ Glottal ··· 30
3. Manner of Articulation ··· 31
⑴ Stops ·· 31
⑵ Fricatives ·· 32
⑶ Affricates ·· 32
⑷ Nasals 32
⑸ Liquids ·· 32
⑹ Glides (= Semi-vowels) ·· 33
*02 Vowels 33
1. Vowels ··· 33
⑴ Tongue Height ··· 33
⑵ Tongue Advancement ··· 34
⑶ Tenseness ··· 34
⑷ Lip Rounding · 34
2. Diphthongs ··· 35
*03 Distinctive [Phonological] Features ·· 37
1. Distinctive [Phonological] Features 1 37
⑴ Syllabic (syl) ·· 37
⑵ Soronant (son) 37
⑶ Consonantal (cons) 37
⑷ Continuant (cont) ··· 37
⑸ Strident (str) 38
⑹ Delayed Release (d.r.) · 38
⑺ Nasals (nas) 38
⑻ Lateral (lat) · 39
⑼ Anterior (ant) ·· 39
⑽ Coronal (cor) ·· 39
⑾ Dorsal 40
2. Distinctive [Phonological] Features 2 43
⑴ Distinctive Features: Major classes [Sonorant], [Continuant] · 43
and [Consonantal]
*04 Phonemes vs. Allophones · 44
1. Finding phonemes and allophones [Distribution of Sounds] 47
⑴ Minimal pairs and contrastive distribution ··· 47
⑵ Complementary Distribution ··· 49
⑶ Free variation · 50
2. Diacritical Marks ··· 51
*05 Consonant Allophones · 51
1. Aspiration ·· 51
2. Glottal Stop Replacement [Glottalization] ·· 54
3. Velar Nasal /ŋ/ ·· 55
4. Clear l and Dark l ·· 56
⑴ Velarized /l/ = dark [?] ·· 57
5. Syllabic Consonants ··· 59
⑴ Syllabic Nasals ··· 59
⑵ Syllabic Liquids · 59
*06 Syllables · 61
1. The Syllable Structure ··· 61
2. Sonority Sequencing Principle ·· 61
3. Syllabification ·· 64
4. Phonotactics 65
⑴ Onset constraints ··· 65
5. Accidental and systematic gaps ·· 67
07 Stress ·· 68
1. Word Stress 68
2. Suffixes & Stress · 69
⑴ Stress-bearing (attracting) suffixes ··· 69
⑵ Stress-neutral suffixes ·· 70
⑶ Stress-shifting (fixing) suffixes · 71
3. Sentence Stress [Tonic Accent] ··· 73
⑴ Content vs. Function Words · 73
⑵ Placement of main stress in sentences ·· 74
⑶ Contrastive stress ··· 75
4. Emphatic Stress 75
5. Stress Shift ·· 76
6. Foot · 77
7. Full Forms and Reduced Forms · 78
*08 Intonation ··· 80
1. What is intonation? · 80
2. Final intonation ·· 80
⑴ Rising-falling intonation ·· 80
⑵ Rising intonation ··· 81
3. Non-final intonation · 82
⑴ Rising-falling intonation ·· 82
⑵ Continuation rise ··· 83
4. Tag questions 84
*09 Phonological Processes ·· 85
1. Assimilation ·· 85
⑴ Progressive assimilation ··· 85
⑵ Regressive assimilation 86
⑶ Coalescent assimilation 89
⑷ Total assimilation [Gemination] 90
2. Dissimilation 91
⑴ fricative dissimilation ··· 91
⑵ -al suffix ·· 91
3. Deletion · 92
⑴ Consonant Cluster Reduction (CCR) ·· 92
⑵ /t/-deletion in /nt/ sequence ··· 93
⑶ /g/-deletion ··· 93
⑷ /b/-deletion ··· 94
4. Insertion [Epenthesis] · 94
5. Metathesis 95
6. Haplology ·· 95
7. Neutralization ·· 96
⑴ Vowel Reduction [Schwa Rule] ··· 96
⑵ Flapping 98
⑶ Glottalization ··· 99
*10 Phonological Rules 100
1. Format & Notation ··· 100
⑴ Parenthesis Notation · 100
⑵ Brace Notation ··· 101
⑶ Alpha Notation ·· 101
2. Dentalization ··· 101
3. Labiodentalization · 102
4. Devoicing ·· 103
5. Velarization ·· 103
6. Vowel Lengthening ·· 105
7. Vowel Nasalization ·· 106
〈Chapter 02 Morphology〉
*01 Basic Concepts & Derivation·· 111
1. Free and bound morphemes · 111
⑴ derivational morphemes vs. inflectional morphemes · 111
2. Content Words and Function Words 112
3. Roots and Stems · 113
4. Allomorphs ··· 114
⑴ Plural Morpheme {-S} 114
⑵ Past Tense {-D} 115
5. The Hierarchical Structure of Derived Words ·· 115
*02 Constraints on Derivation ·· 116
1. Accidental Gaps vs. Systematic Gaps · 116
2. -en suffix ·· 117
3. -al suffix 118
4. Class 1 vs. Class 2 Suffixes 119
5. un- prefix (semantic constraint) ··· 121
*03 Word-Formation Processes ·· 122
1. Compounds · 122
⑴ Ambiguity 124
⑵ Exocentric and Endocentric Compounds ··· 124
⑶ Stress in Compounds vs. Phrases ··· 125
2. Blends 126
3. Clipping · 126
4. Acronyms ·· 127
5. Initialism [(Alphabetic) abbreviations] · 127
6. Conversion ··· 127
7. Back Formation · 128
8. Coinage · 129
9. Word from Names (Eponyms) ·· 129
〈Chapter 03 Syntax〉
*01 Predicates, Arguments and Thematic Roles 133
1. Predicates and arguments ·· 133
2. Thematic Roles [θ -roles, Thematic Relations, Semantic Roles] 133
⑴ Nonreferential it and there 135
3. Selectional Restrictions · 135
*02 X-Bar Theory ·· 136
1. Heads, Complements and Specifiers 136
2. Adjuncts 137
⑴ Adjuncts can be optional. ·· 138
⑵ Adjuncts can be stacked. ··· 138
⑶ Complements, not adjuncts, are closer to the Head · 138
3. Subcategorization · 141
4. Complements and Adjuncts ··· 142
⑴ Complements and Adjuncts in NPs 142
⑵ Complements and Adjuncts in VPs 145
⑶ Clausal Complements vs. Clausal Adjuncts ··· 146
*03 Clauses ·· 148
1. Raising and Control Constructions · 148
2. Differences between Raising and Control Verbs ··· 151
⑴ Subject Raising and Control · 151
⑵ Object Raising and Control ··· 154
3. Infinitival Complementation · 155
⑴ Believe Verbs: Subject-to-Object Raising · 156
⑵ Want Verbs · 158
⑶ Persuade Verbs: Object Control ··· 159
4. Complementizers that, for, whether, if · 161
5. Complementizers whether vs. if ·· 162
*04 Ambiguity ·· 163
1. Syntactic Ambiguity · 163
2. Lexical Ambiguity · 165
3. Lexico-Syntactic Ambiguity ·· 165
*05 Constituency Tests · 168
1. Movement · 168
◆ Leftward Movement · 169
⑴ Topicalization (= Preposing) · 169
⑵ VP-Preposing ·· 169
⑶ Though-Movement 170
◆ Rightward Movement ·· 170
⑴ Heavy-NP-Shift ·· 170
⑵ Extraposition from NP 171
2. Substitution ·· 171
⑴ Proform Substitution 171
⑵ One-Substitution · 172
⑶ Do so-Substitution 174
3. Coordination 175
⑴ Ordinary Coordination · 175
⑵ Right Node Raising · 175
4. Cleft and Pseudocleft Sentences 176
5. (Adverb) Insertion 176
6. The Constituent Response Test ·· 177
*06 Syntactic Argumentation · 177
1. Phrasal Verbs vs. Prepositional Verbs 177
⑴ Movement 178
⑵ Coordination 178
⑶ Shared Constituent Coordination Test 178
⑷ Sentence Fragment 178
⑸ (VP-Adverb) Insertion · 179
⑹ Gapping [V-Deletion] ·· 179
⑺ Clefting · 179
⑻ Word Order 179
⑼ Stress Pattern ·· 180
2. Binding Theory ·· 180
⑴ Anaphors (Reflexives & Reciprocals) 181
⑵ Pronominals [(Personal) Pronouns] ·· 182
3. Case Theory ··· 183
⑴ Case Filter and Adjacency Requirement ··· 183
⑵ NOMINATIVE and ACCUSATIVE case · 184
⑶ Adjectives and Nouns · 186
〈Chapter 04 Grammar〉
*01 Determiners · 199
1. Determiners · 199
⑴ sequence [order] restriction 199
⑵ co-occurrence restriction · 199
2. Genitives ··· 200
⑴ Meanings of Genitives 200
⑵ Double Genitive 200
*02 Adjectives ·· 201
1. Stative and Dynamic Adjectives ·· 201
2. Relative Clauses ·· 202
⑴ Punctuation ·· 203
⑵ Modification of a proper nouns ··· 203
⑶ Modification of any, every, no, etc. ·· 203
⑷ That as relative pronoun 203
⑸ Stacking 203
⑹ Sentence modification ·· 204
3. Verbal Participles vs. Adjectival Participles ··· 204
4. Unmarked and Marked Adjectives · 205
5. Predicative-Only Adjectives · 206
⑴ Adjectives Beginning with the Prefix A ·· 207
⑵ Adjective That Take Complements · 207
⑶ Adjectives Referring to Medical Conditions or Health 207
*03 Adverbials · 208
1. Subjuncts ·· 208
⑴ Viewpoint subjuncts · 208
⑵ Courtesy subjuncts 208
⑶ Item subjuncts 209
2. Disjuncts ··· 210
⑴ Style disjuncts 210
⑵ Content disjuncts ··· 211
*04 Pronouns ··· 213
1. Reference · 213
*05 Verb Complementation 214
1. That-Complements ··· 214
2. Infinitival Complements · 214
⑴ Type 1 Complements: Persuade verbs ··· 214
⑵ Type 2 Complements: Want verbs · 215
⑶ Type 3 Complements: Believe verbs · 216
*06 Tense and Aspect ·· 218
1. Present Perfect vs. Simple Past · 218
⑴ Anteriority: definite or indefinite time ·· 218
⑵ Time Adjuncts and the Present Perfect Aspect ·· 219
⑶ Current Relevance · 220
2. Will vs. Be going to ··· 220
3. The present tense in adverbial clauses ·· 222
⑴ will+R → the present tense ·· 222
⑵ will have pp → have pp ··· 222
4. Stative Progressives ··· 223
⑴ Giving statements more emotional strength and intensity ·· 223
⑵ Focusing on behavior as a change from the norm ·· 223
⑶ Focusing on evolving change ··· 224
⑷ Hedging or softening a definitive opinion ··· 224
5. Lexical Aspects of Verbs ⑴ · 225
⑴ States · 225
⑵ Activities ·· 225
⑶ Accomplishments ··· 226
⑷ Achievements ·· 226
6 Lexical Aspects of Verbs ⑵ ··· 231
⑴ Aspectual Classes ·· 231
⑵ Diagnostic Tests for Lexical Aspects 232
*07 Passive Voice 235
1. Semantic Constraints on Using the Passive 235
2. Get Passives ·· 236
3. Past Participles: Adjectives or Passive? · 237
4. Ergative Verbs [Unaccusative Verbs] 238
5. Middle Verbs ·· 241
*08 Negation 242
1. Clausal Negation ·· 242
⑴ Subject-Auxiliary Inversion 243
2. Local Negation ·· 243
3. Syntactic features of clausal negation · 243
4. Nonassertive items [NPIs] ··· 245
5. Transferred Negation · 245
6. Scope of Negation ·· 246
*09 Pro-forms and Ellipsis ·· 247
1. Pro-forms ·· 247
⑴ One as pro-form ··· 247
⑵ Do it, do that, do so ·· 248
⑶ So and not as pro-forms for object that-clause · 249
2. Elliptical noun phrases ·· 249
*10 Inversion 250
1. Subject-Auxiliary Inversion ·· 250
⑴ So+S+V vs. So+V+S ··· 250
⑵ Negative adverb +V+S 251
2. Subject-Verb Inversion ·· 251
*11 Coordination 252
1. Combinatory and Segregatory Coordination of NPs 252
2. Indicators of segregatory meaning · 253
*12 Multiword Verbs ··· 254
1. The Distinction between Prepositional Verbs and Phrasal Verbs 254
2. Separable and Inseparable Phrasal Verbs 256
⑴ Separable phrasal verbs ·· 256
⑵ Inseparable phrasal verbs ··· 256
⑶ Permanently separated phrasal verbs ·· 257
*13 Dative Alternation 258
1. Subcategorization of English Verbs that Take Indirect Objects · 258
2. Semantics Governing Postverbal Position for Indirect Objects ·· 259
3. The Ambiguity of For Phrases · 259
4. Conditions on Indirect Object Alternation ··· 260
⑴ End-focus principle ··· 261
⑵ End-weight principle 261
⑶ Verbs that Are Restricted to One Pattern 262
*14 Constructions ·· 263
1. Cleft and Pseudo-cleft Sentences ·· 263
⑴ Structure ··· 263
⑵ Clefting is a presupposition trigger 263
⑶ Ambiguity 263
2. Existential Sentences · 265
⑴ Indefinite NPs: preference for the existential over the non-existential ·· 266
⑵ Displaced definite NPs 266
3. Tough Movement · 268
⑴ Object-to-Subject Raising (Tough Movement) · 268
⑵ Subject-to-Subject Raising 269
〈Chapter 05 Semantics & Pragmatics〉
*01 Referential Semantics ·· 275
1. Reference vs. Referent 275
2. Anaphora vs. Cataphora ·· 275
*02 Lexical Relations · 276
1. Synonymy · 276
2. Antonymy ·· 276
⑴ Complementary [Binary] antonyms · 276
⑵ Gradable antonyms ··· 276
⑶ Reverses ··· 278
⑷ Converses [Relational opposites] ·· 278
3. Hyponymy 279
4. Different Meanings: Homonymy ··· 279
5. Related Meanings: Polysemy 280
*03 Sentential Relations ··· 280
1. Entailment 280
2. Presupposition 281
⑴ “Constancy Under Negation” Test ·· 282
3. Presupposition Triggers 283
⑴ Wh-question 283
⑵ Factive predicates vs. Non-factive predicates ·· 284
4. Factive Predicates vs. Non-factive Predicates · 284
⑴ Factive Predicates · 284
⑵ Non-factive Predicates · 285
5. Implicative Verbs ·· 286
*04 Deixis [Deictic Expressions] · 287
1. Deictic vs. Non-deictic expressions ··· 288
⑴ Deixis vs. Anaphora 288
*05 Cooperative Principle & Conversational Maxims ·· 289
1. Maxim of Quantity ··· 289
2. Maxim of Quality ·· 290
3. Maxim of Relation ··· 290
4. Maxim of Manner 290
5. Conversational Implicature ·· 291
⑴ Scalar Implicature (SI) 292
6. Hedges ·· 294
*06 Speech Acts ··· 299
1. Performative Sentences 299
2. Three Facets of Speech Acts ·· 300
3. Searle’s Typology of Illocutionary Acts 301
⑴ Representatives ··· 301
⑵ Directives ··· 302
⑶ Commissives ··· 302
⑷ Expressives ·· 302
⑸ Declarations · 303
4. Direct and Indirect Speech Acts · 303"
